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stable crude supply to their re neries. Yields in crude have to t re neries complexity to balance the local consumption. Any violation of the balance is normally undesirable. Oil re ning activities are characterized by low margin and high throughput. The international energy market is free, but the local market is normally highly regulated. Therefore, lowering production costs is the best option for re neries to survive; they have to produce as many intermediate materials as possible. Importing intermediate components is not optimal. For a process industry with such characteristics, online process monitoring and control is very important. The processes in an oil re nery generate huge volumes and streams of data that are routinely stored in huge databases. The operator of a typical distributed control system (DCS) in a complex contemporary oil re nery controls and monitors several process units and has responsibility for more than 400 valves! A typical oil re nery database can contain as many as 10,000 12,000 continuous data points. Laboratory samples are routinely analyzed and more than 2000 characteristics are reported every day. The process operators continuously (in real time) make decisions based on previous experience to drive the process toward targets. With evolving intelligent sensors, this process can be automated. An oil re nery usually produces a very high number of products, which ranges from light hydrocarbons to heavy fuels. There are a high number of legal speci cations that impact the process economics. It is normal practice to blend several intermediate products and recipes in various combinations in order to produce different nal products. All of these combinations have to meet legal speci cations. The balance between speci cations and product components gives the degrees of freedom and emphasizes the need for online monitoring of the quality of the products.

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THE PROGRESS OF PERCEPTUAL RESEARCH Where are we now The study of the perceptual problem and the issue of noncorrespondence remains an open issue, but it has had an interesting historical evolution Wundt was correct in his supposition that psychology needed psychological laws, since physical and physiological laws cannot explain many of the phenomena of consciousness What Wundt recognized was that the very fact of noncorrespondence between perception and the physical reality was what proved this fact and this same noncorrespondence is what often drives perceptual research K hler was wrong in saying that instances of noncorrespondence were relegated to the attic of the science Instances of noncorrespondence or illusion are what serve as the motive power for a vast amount of perceptual investigation It is the unexpected and unexplainable illusion or distortion that catches the attention and interest of researchers.

The reason that there are no great insights found in the category of phenomena that are currently called illusions is that once investigators explain any illusion and nd its underlying mechanism, it is no longer an illusion Consider the case of color afterimages, which M ller classi ed as an illusion in 1826 Afterimages would serve as stimuli for research by Fechner, Helmholtz, and Hering Now that we understand the mechanisms that cause afterimages, however, these phenomena are looked on no longer as instances of illusion or distortion but rather as phenomena that illustrate the operation of the color coding system Similarly, brightness contrast, which Luckiesh was still classifying as an illusion as late 1922, stimulated Hering and Mach to do research to explain these instances of noncorrespondence between the percept and the physical state.

By 1965, however, Ratliff would no longer see anything illusory in these phenomena and would merely look upon them as perceptual phenomena that demonstrate, and are clearly predictable from, the interactions of neural networks in the retina The study of perception is fraught with the instances of noncorrespondence and illusion that are no longer illusions The fact that a mixture color, such as yellow, shows no evidence of the component red or green wavelengths that compose it was once considered an example of an illusion Later, once the laws of color mixture had been established, the expectation was built that we should expect fusion and blending in perception, which meant that the fact that the individual notes that make up a chord or a sound complex could be distinguished from one another and did not blend.

STATISTICS. Weak Institutional Bonds signi cantly predicts greater Acceptance of Risky Behavior (unstandardized coef cient = .181). Gender does not predict Acceptance of Risky Behavior (unstandardized coef cient = .013). Indirect Effects A particularly strong feature of SEM is the ability to test not only direct effects between variables but also indirect effects. Mediational hypotheses are not well illustrated in the Acceptance of Risky Behavior example, so a better example is shown in Figure 24.4. Imagine that students are assigned to one of two teaching methods for a statistics class (coded 0 and 1). Final exam scores are recorded at the end of the quarter. The direct effect of teaching method on exam score is path a. But is it reasonable to suggest that mere assignment to a teaching method creates the change Perhaps not. Maybe, instead, the teaching method increases a student s

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11.6.2 Effects of Imperfect CSI Figure 11.7 shows the SNR loss due to LSE channel estimation according to Eq. (11.14) with various values of Z. For reference, the MB-OFDM system uses P = 2, Nt = 128, and so choosing a value of Lt = 32 (less than the length of the zero padding) results in a value of Z = 0.125 from Eq. (11.6).

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